Health Threats From Environmental Pollutants Research Paper

Health Threats From Environmental Pollutants - Research Paper Example Evaporation of seawater has increased and this has resulted in droughts in some regions, and increased rains in other areas. Such unpredictable climatic changes have posed a threat to the economic well being of the developing countries. The rapid nature of these climatic changes has generally caught mankind on the wrong foot (Victor). Food production has been adversely affected, and the sudden and unpredictable changes in the climate have increased the mortality rate amongst those who dwell in coastal areas. It is the principal objective of the Kyoto agreement to countenance these challenges. This agreement endeavors to engender better cooperation between countries, in order to reduce global warming. Nevertheless, the fact remains that the Kyoto agreement is just an initial, though significant, step in this direction and several such agreements have to be implemented (Victor). There are several factors that contribute to water pollution. There are direct and indirect contamination sources, which act as contributory causes for water contamination. For instance, the effluents from industries and factories directly contribute to water contamination. Chemical treatment plants and chemical production units are major water pollutants. These are termed as direct contamination sources. In urban areas, such direct sources contaminate drinking water. Therefore, many countries have taken stringent measures to prevent drinking water pollution. The governments of developed nations have enacted several legislations to prevent industries and factories from discharging their chemical effluents into water sources. Despite these steps, water contamination still continues in most countries (Rubin). Water is chiefly contaminated by the activities of humans.

Principles of Public International Law Essay Example for Free

Principles of Public International Law Essay â€Å"Law will never really play an effective part in international relations until it can annex to its own sphere some of the matters which at present lie within the domestic jurisdiction of the several states. † Discuss ‘The principles and regulations established in a community by some authority and applicable to its people, whether in the form of legislation or of custom and policies recognised’. The aforementioned is a definition of law as defined by the American Heritage dictionary of the English Language. If we apply this definition of community in its strictest sense it becomes increasingly difficult to subscribe to the view that there is an international community at large. If we begin to analyse statistics that show that there are over 7000 languages in the world, approximately 10,000 distinctly different religions, and a disputably infinite number of ethnic groups across just the 195 countries that comprise our global society, then it becomes patently clear that we would be better off highlighting our divisiveness rather than our prospects as a global community. Our collective history as human beings, however, tells a different story about our common interest and the way in which we have formally raised and torn down barriers to promote the same. We have, on the other hand, been separated on the basis of differing ideologies and the exercise of exclusive nationalism. Since the latter is a sentiment which resides in particular nations which have at their core a set legal framework validating their very existence and their interaction with other nations, it is essential to any study of law’s application to international relations. How does a sovereign nation reconcile its very sovereignty with its growing need to be integrated into a shrinking global society with its concomitant shrinking global economy? It is clear that some compromises must be made. Before we consider any specific cases in which states have decided to relinquish some of their sovereign power, we must consider the implications of the term sovereignty itself, the elements of sovereignty and its importance to a nation-state. Much has been written on the topic of sovereignty. Definitions vary slightly from one text to the other but they all have at their core, when specifically referring to the idea of state sovereignty, the idea of legitimate authority. In Sohail H. Hashmi’s discourse on sovereignty in the book ‘State Sovereignty, Change and Resistance in International Relations’, he asserts, referring to the concept of legitimate authority, that it is â€Å" a broad concept – not a definition but a wide category – that unites most of sovereignty’s tradition. He further notes that authority can be defined as â€Å"The right to command and correlatively, the right to be obeyed† and is only legitimate â€Å"when it is seen as right by those living under it. † It is to be noted that legitimate authority is not simply the idea of more power. R. P. Wolf, the twentieth century political philosopher and individual anarchist, illustrates the difference more sharply in a classical example in which he argues â€Å"if I am forced at gunpoint to hand over my money, I am subject to power; if I pay my taxes even though I think I can cheat I am recognizing legitimate authority. † We must recognize, however, that though legitimate authority is the overarching principle on any discourse on state sovereignty, there are specific elements of state sovereignty that are crucial, which every sovereign state holds dear to it and attempts to retain regardless of seemingly necessary or stipulated concessions of power, influence or authority to the international community. They include International Legal Validation (of a sovereign state), Interdependence Sovereignty and Domestic Sovereignty. International Legal Validation can be viewed as the right of the state to be a sovereign entity as prescribed by ‘international law’. It is legitimate authority as a legal construct or as Hashami puts it â€Å"legitimate authority† that is â€Å"prescribed by the law. † (Hashami, pg 18) The author Stephen D. Krasner in his book ‘Sovereignty, Organised Hypocrisy’ describes this element of sovereignty as international legal sovereignty. He states that it â€Å"refers to the practices associated with mutual recognition, usually between territorial entities that have formal juridical independence. † At its core international legal validation concerns issues of the recognition of states. If one were ignorant about the political climate on the global front, the natural answer to the question ‘how did a state become a state? ’ would be that ‘the would-be state must satisfy the defined stipulations (in international law) for becoming a state. Following this line of reasoning would inevitably lead one to the very first article of the Montevideo Convention on Rights and Duties of States, which since 1933 set out that â€Å"The state, as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with other states. It does not take much political savvy, however, to understand that the legal criteria for statehood and the actual criteria for being recognized as a state by the international community at large is a de facto and de jure issue. As Krasner postulates â€Å"States have recognized other governments even when they did not h ave control over their claimed territory, such as the German and Italian recognition of the Franco regime in 1936, and the American recognition of the Lon Nol government in Cambodia in 1970. States have continued to recognize governments which have lost power, including Mexican recognition of the Spanish republican regime of 1977, and recognition of the Chinese Nationalist regime by all of the major Western powers until the 1970s. States have refused to recognize new governments even when they have established effective control, such as the British refusal to recognize the July monarch in France until 1832, the US refusal to recognise the Soviet regime until 1934. (Krasner, pg 15) The recognition of states is definitely an area in which the law (as prescribed by the Montevideo Convention and more recently the EU, which has almost identical tenets concerning the recognition of states) has proved ineffective in international relations precisely because of the political agendas and consequently domestic jurisdiction of the several states which reflect the political climate in which they operate. States attempt to hold on to this type of sovereignty because it affords them clout and validation in a global society in which interdependence is not just an ideal but a tool for survival, at the very least and a necessary aid to prosperity at the very most. The point here is not that nonrecognition brings with it a form of absolute isolation which renders the unrecognised state permanently barred from international commerce and diplomatic relations. What is of paramount importance, however, is the fact that nonrecognition brings with it an air of uncertainty concerning the unrecognised state, particularly in the eyes of multinational firms which as a result may be more reluctant to invest. Krasner notes that â€Å"by facilitating accords, international legal sovereignty offers the possibility for rulers to secure external resources that can enhance their ability to stay in power and promote the security, economic, and ideational interest of their constituents. (Krasner, pg 17) Interdependence sovereignty is the ability of a state to regulate the flow of information, goods, ideas and people into and out of its country. States try to hold on to this type of sovereignty because their ability to do this is directly related to their ability to effectively take control and organise their own polity, which in essence is domestic sovereignty which states must hold on to by definition i. e. in order to be a state in the first place. We shall consider reasons which prompt states to relinquish some of their sovereignty later in our discussion. We have thus far acknowledged, via several examples, based on the politics involved in the process of mutual recognition of states, that the issue of international legal sovereignty or international legal validation is a de facto versus de jure consideration. Is this, however, a trend in the legal procedures in international relations? The law, based on our previously defined definition, must be applicable to the actors in the community in hich it is operating. If, in the realm of international relations, the law can be voluntarily and regularly flouted by those who come under its subjection then serious questions arise about the very existence of ‘international law’. It must be duly noted though that states undeniably operate within the workings of a law order which to a large extent regulates their day to day interactions with one another and which is autonomo us in its operations. There are a countless number of international treatises that are steadfastly observed on a day to day basis. Examples include international agreements which facilitate the smooth to and fro transport of letters which are transported to all corners of the globe at fixed rates which are stipulated by the Universal postal union, the establishment of hundreds of football leagues worldwide- the individual countries who oversee them all subscribing to the specific rules and regulation set out by the world governing body in football, F. I. F. A. and the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations which afford diplomats exemption from prosecution within the courts of the country in which they are stationed. It is evident then that there is a legal framework that regulates the goings on of international relations. We have to probe a bit deeper into the workings of this system in order to ascertain whether or not it can accurately be characterised as international law. It can be argued that upon examination of our above examples of situations in which law plays an effective role in international relations, that the circumstances demand that such broad and far-reaching legal action be undertaken. The methods may vary but in order for letters to be transported globally there must be some standardisation procedure. This sort of necessary ‘self-coercion’ can be observed in a slightly different manner in the operations of international trade and commerce. Often times when two countries have a trade dispute they seek to resolve it in the World Trade Organisation (W. T. O. ), the foremost international authority on trade and trade disputes. The country that loses the dispute, in a legal case which is heard before a court of law under the auspices of the W. T. O. , more often that not abides by the decision. This, again, is not necessarily because the losing party has a great respect or reverence for ‘international law’ or the W. T. O. per se, but rather because it is within its interest to do so. As Harris explains, â€Å"The great majority of the rules of international law are generally observed by all nations without actual compulsion, for it is generally in the interest of all nations concerned to honour their obligations under international law. † (Harris pg 8) He further argues that a nation will be â€Å"reluctant to disregard its obligations under a commercial treaty, since the benefits that it expects from the execution of the treaty by the other contracting parties are complimentary to those anticipated by the latter. It may thus stand to loose more than it would gain by not fulfilling its part in the bargain. This is particularly so in the long run since a nation that has the reputation of reneging on its commercial obligations will find it hard to conclude commercial treaties beneficially to itself. † (Harris pg8) There is, evidently then, a law amongst nations, which is effective regardless of the reason for it being so. The problem of defining this law amongst nations as ‘international law’, however, lies in part because of those very cases in which it is flagrantly disregarded. For any legal system to functional optimally it must operate in a community in which there is a legislative system to make laws as it sees fit, a judiciary to implement the administration of justice and an executive body to enforce the law. Now grant it, generally speaking, there is no formal legislative system in international relations, when countries enter into agreements with each other the signing of treaties is usually undertaken and this serves as the source of law that is meant to dictate the terms of their agreement. However, unlike what is the case in municipal law, there is no definite enforceability method. There is no one authority that can guarantee the compliance of states to international treaties or conventions. We have already made the point that in most cases compliance has become second nature – but what of the cases (though they are scarce) in which it is not? Within the domestic law arena there are cases in which the law is glaringly broken. Once there is enough evidence to convict the wrongdoer, he is convicted and punished. The punitive measures that are undertaken would have been pre-determined by the legislative body and subsequently enforced by an executive body. There is no such arrangement in the international domain. As Harris puts forward â€Å"The problem of enforcement becomes acute, however, in that minority of important and generally spectacular cases, particularly important in the context of our discussion, in which compliance with international law and its enforcement have a direct bearing on the relative power of the nations concerned. In those cases†¦considerations of power rather than of law determine compliance and enforcement. † (Harris, pg 9) Therein lies the difficulty in saying that there is a law of nations. Having established the problematic nature of ‘international law’ or a ‘law of nations’, we shall henceforth temporarily ignore our challenges with nomenclature for the purposes of our remaining discussion. That being said, it is of critical importance to analyse the impact of international law on municipal law and vice versa. There is an ongoing dispute between theorist who believe that international law and municipal law are two separate legal orders and theorist who believe that they are part of the same legal order. The formative argument is known as dualism while the latter is known as monism. There is no one argument based on either monism or dualism that comprehensively settles the dispute. â€Å"On the international plane, international law is invoked and applied on a daily basis by states and intergovernmental organisations. With minor exceptions, it is the only law that applies to the conduct of states and international organisations in their relations with one another. Here international law is a distinct legal system, comparable in its scope and function to a national legal system. † (Buergenthal-Murphy, pg 3) The point mentioned above is very valid and gives credence to the dualism argument. Diplomatic relations, as discussed earlier, are dealt with strictly on the international plane. In order to see the appeal of the monism argument however we have to look no further than the argument establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice (C. C. J. ). Article XXIII of this agreement is as follows: 1)Each contracting party should, to the maximum extent possible, encourage and facilitate the use of arbitration and other means of alternative dispute resolution for the settlement of international commercial disputes. )To this end, each contracting party shall provide appropriate procedures to ensure observance of agreements to arbitrate and for the recognition and enforcement of arbitral award in such disputes. The C. C. J. is a court whose aim is to have a â€Å"determinative role in the further development of Caribbean jurisprudence through the juridical process† is thus an international lega l authority. In order for its smooth operation it must nevertheless depend on the domestic jurisdictions of its member states. Monism and dualism can hence be viewed as fluid concepts which exist in varying degrees.

History And Structure Of English English Language Essay

History And Structure Of English English Language Essay The intriguing question, whether language and culture have something to do with each other was the propellant behind this research. Defining language as a exclusively human entity for communication using sophisticated variables and culture as the know-how required for smooth subsistence in a society, the Sapir-Whorf Hypotheses has been studied with evidence collected from my Mother tongue [Malayalam] in relation to English. Doctrines of linguistic relativism [language does not impose but influences thought process i.e. language predisposes the mindset towards a specific world reality] and linguistic determinism [language determines the categories of thought i.e. perception is at the mercy of language] have been captured with citations from literary texts of renowned linguists and have been subjected to the penetrating light of analysis with the evidence collected in terms of categories of language like gender, religion, time etc. The research has led to conclusions which support the theses at its weaker level and establish the one to one relation existing between the two subjects in question. The concerns of translation have been addressed briefly along with posing the debate of deterministic approachs viability to the readers discretion. Accepting the influence of language and culture to great extent, the paper tries to show how perception shapes up under the two with research proof and theories supporting the same in background. Key Terms Language Culture Sapir-Whorf Hypotheses Linguistic Relativism Linguistic Determinism Translation Categories 1. Introduction Language, unique to mankind, which is the method of relaying thoughts by the use of signs, can be analyzed in wake of its connection to culture which is itself a diverse entity constituting knowledge, traditions, values, art, rituals and much more that are provided by the historical, environmental and psychological dimensions of human exposure which a person acquires as being part of the society. There seems to be a one to one correspondence between sounds, words and sentences in a specific language and the manner in which the user of that language perceives the world around him/her. A well acknowledged hypothesis is to treat language as a free channel for the relay of ideas as it does not obstruct transparent ideas from being transmitted. Structuralists considered language as sound entwined with systematic thought as language less thought was similar to uncharted nebula. There exists no distinction nor an idea before language was conceived. But this has been challenged later by ling uists, who have defined language as comprising a kind of logic or type of reference which is the key in shaping the speech communitys ideas. The diversity in vocabulary of two languages can be linked to the diverse ideas and opinions presented in the two languages .While considering culture in a larger horizon it are imperative to think what it inculcates. So culture therefore can be treated as what an individual should know as to perform effectively in the social structure of a society and that the result of this involvement in different aspects doesnt in any way have something to do with biological characterization. Illustrating the bond between language and culture can be done easily by reflecting upon the Sapir-Whorf Hypotheses (1921) which have two doctrines, linguistic relativism and linguistic determinism. The weaker version of the notion, the idea of linguistic relativism, proposes that there exist infinite possibilities with regard to the framework of human languages. Langu age, it says in no way forces realty. The grammatical items of a language do not decide a communitys world perception but plays a major part in the mindset of the speaker to a specific perception. Whereas, linguistic determinism intends to say that language determines how we conceive ideas and our intellectual psyche .Sensory inputs and the diasporas of worldly perceptions one gathers depends on the differences and categories engraved within a language and the speaker realizes the universe around as demarcated by the mother tongue. These hypothesiss present clearly how culture emerges as a roadblock in front of a translator while trying to reconstruct a piece of literature well cushioned in the cultural heritage of the area. The levels to which the idea can be recaptured remains questioned as every piece of literature is well immersed in its social and historic variables of the culture concerned and also have to let go of the native base and try to pitch itself in new regions with d ifferent social norms. When one plans to translate, the matrix of the text, the matrix of the society out of which the article has emerged and the social matrix in which Meta article will be developed has to be considered. The rituals and norms in a region will differ from those of other parts and language is the manifestation of these different cultures. In specific situations words tend to deliver a good deal of ideas but certain visuals rarely have their counterparts in other languages. 2 Literature Review 2.1 An introduction to Sociolinguistics-Ronald Wardaugh Goodenoughs (1957,p 167) defines culture as: A society culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members, and to do so in any role that they accept for any one of themselves. One long standing claim concerning the relationship between language and culture is that the structure of a language determines the way in which speakers of that language view the world. A somewhat weaker version is that the structure does not determine the world view but is still extremely influential in predisposing speakers of a language toward adopting a particular world view. The opposite claim is that the culture of a people finds reflection in the language they employ: because they value certain things and do them in a certain way, they come to use their language in ways that reflect what they value and what they do. In this view, cultural requirements do not determine the structure of a language but they certainly influence how a langu age is used and perhaps determine why specific bits and pieces are the way they are. If speakers of one language have certain words to describe things and speakers of another language lack similar words, then speakers the first language will find it easier to talk about these things. A stronger claim is that if one language makes distinctions that another does not make, then those who use the first language will more readily perceive the differences in their environment which such linguistic distinctions draw attention to .The strongest claim of all is that the grammatical categories available in a particular language not only help the users of that language to perceive the world in a certain way but also at the same time limit such perception. They act as blinkers, you perceive only what your language allows you or predispose you to perceive. Romaine (1999) states the position as follows: No particular language or way of speaking has a privileged view of the world as it really is T he world is not simply the way it is but what we make it through language .The domain of experience that are important to cultures get grammaticed into languagesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. [And] no two languages are sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. Finally the claim that it would be impossible to describe certain things in a particular language because that language lacks the necessary resources is only partially valid at best. When one analysiss the ideas presented by Wardaugh its evident that the Sapir-Whorf Hypotheses remains still unproved. It seems that it is possible to speak about anything in a language given that the person is ready to use some amount of ambiguous or roundabout figures of speech. Still some concepts might be better expressed in some languages than the others. All languages gives its speakers a system for making any type of inference that they have to make of the world in addition to their own language which can talk about any other language. If this is the case, then language must be a highly sophisticated entity, one which lets its speakers to break through any perceptions that exist and to make is happen quite easily. 2.2 Language and the Mediation of Experience: Linguistic Representation and Cognitive Orientation-Michael Stubbs A famous formulation of this puzzle was made by Marx (1852), who radically unified the individual and the social: Human beings make their own history, but they do not make it of their own free will à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The tradition of all the dead generations weighs like a nightmare on the minds of the living. Saussurean structuralism leads almost inevitably to the view that the language system itself creates meaning. The most explicit source is work by Sapir (1884-1939) and Whorf (1897-1941). The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is often taken as the classic source of the view that the grammatical categories of language construct implicit theories of the world. Famous passages in Whorf (1956) include: We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language (p. 213). This is a claim about linguist ic relativity. But a view that languages embody conventions which codify thought slides easily into determinism: The agreement is, of course, an implicit and unstated one, but its terms are absolutely obligatory; we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the agreement decrees [pp. 213-14, emphasis in original] à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the forms of a persons thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. (p. 252)We dont speak a language, the language speaks us (Foucault, 1980; G. Williams,1992: 248-58).There are certainly areas of experience which are both abstract and differently grammaticaliced in different languages, for example, in systems of tense, aspect, mood and modality, and evidentiality. It is common for such meanings to be marked in the grammar as obligatory categories, but languages differ considerably in what can and must be encoded. There are many areas of human life of which we can have no direct experience at all, and where all our knowledge comes to us via language. It is therefore plausible that language influences thought, for most of us, at least some of the time. Nelson (1991) points out that a great deal of our knowledge of the world is acquired through language, and that many cultural concepts which children acquire early do not exist independently of the ways in which we talk about them. The book says that much of the challenge posed by Whorf and others remains unsolved: it is especially tough to break free of these roundabouts of arguments where language is both root and proof. It speaks of many variants of the outlook that language and ideas are related. It believes it is reasonable that if the world is continually talked about in specific ways, then such behavior can influence thinking. Proposes that there does not exist is no credible proof that language determines thought in any absolute way. On the contrary, it says that all languages provide resources which are being continuously developed to express new thoughts. However, it has evidence that linguistic choices can make people reach baseless conclusions. And thinks it is highly probable that, if these resources are constantly exploited in regular codings, then behavior of language can lead to stereotyped thinking. 2.3 How does our language shape how we think-Lera Boroditsky For a long time, the idea that language might shape thought was considered at best non testable and more often simply wrong. From experiments, we have learned is that people who speak different languages do indeed think differently and that even flukes of grammar can profoundly affect how we see the world. Language is a uniquely human gift, central to our experience of being human. Language is so fundamental to our experience, so deeply a part of being human, that its hard to imagine life without it. Most questions of whether and how language shapes thought start with the simple observation that languages differ from one another. Clearly, languages require different things of their speakers. Certainly, speakers of different languages must attend to and encode strikingly different aspects of the world just so they can use their language properly. Scholars on the other side of the debate dont find the differences in how people talk convincing. All our linguistic utterances are sparse, encoding only a small part of the information we have available. Its possible that everyone thinks the same way, notices the same things, but just talks differently. Believers in cross-linguistic differences counter that everyone does not pay attention to the same things: if everyone did, one might think it would be easy to learn to speak other languages. Learning to speak new languages requires something more than just learning vocabulary: it requires paying attention to the right things in the world so that you have the correct information to include in what you say. The result is a profound difference in navigational ability and spatial knowledge between speakers of languages that rely primarily on absolute reference frames (like Kuuk Thaayorre) and languages that rely on relative reference frames (like English). What enables them in fact, forces them to do this is their language. Patterns in a language can indeed play a causal role in constructing how we think. In practical term s, it means that when youre learning a new language, youre not simply learning a new way of talking, you are also inadvertently learning a new way of thinking. Apparently even small flukes of grammar, like the seemingly arbitrary assignment of gender to a noun, can have an effect on peoples ideas of concrete objects in the world. Such quirks are pervasive in language; gender, for example, applies to all nouns, which means that it is affecting how people think about anything that can be designated by a noun. The article has talked about how languages form the system in which we think about space, time, colors, and objects. It also points to effects of language on how people read events, rationale about causality, maintain track of amount, comprehend matter, observe and experience sentiment, reason about other peoples minds, opt to take risks, and even the way they choose professions and spouses. Taking up the all arguments, the author shows that linguistic processes are pervasive in most elementary domains of thinking, involuntarily determining us from the nuts and bolts of cognition and observation to our loftiest conceptual ideas and chief life decisions. Language is vital to our understanding of being human, and the languages we speak deeply shape the method we imagine, the method we observe the world, the method we live our live. 3. Language and culture: Evidence from Mother Tongue 3.1 Proverbs Onam vanalaum, Unni piranalum, Koranu kumpilil thane kanji which translates as that even at the time of cultural festivities [here Onam, a cultural festival of the Malayalam speech community] and even when a child is born [here Unni, which is an endearment term used for boy, child or son] still a lower class/caste member will have to have his meager food [here kanji, which is rice without separating out the water after steaming] in a humble bowl [here kumpil, which is a bowl made by forming a cone out of a leaf].While a native speaker will be able to feel the pathetic condition of the lower class and how they stand oppressed in life, a English speaker will not perceive this the same way as he is unaware of the caste system, the cultural fervor associated with Onam and birth of a child and how kumpil is a marker of the poverty. Onamthinnu edak puttu kachavadam which is a phrase used when someone talks or does something irrelevant when he/she must be doing something else. The phrase translates as selling puttu [a local cuisine made by steaming ground rice layered with coconut] while the celebrations of Onam is in full swing. This phrase also illustrates how the people despise the materialistic attitude and want all to be part of cultural celebrations. An English speaker might be able to identify the concept he will not be able to associate as strongly as a native speaker with the idea as the ideas of harmony and friendship spread by Onam and how puttu is part of life in the area is known properly only to them 3.2 Folk songs Allayal thara venam, aduthorampalam venam, Alinu chernoru kulavum venam; Kulipanayi kulam venam, kulathil chenthamara vena, Kulichu chenakam pukan chandhanam venam. Puvayal manam venam, pumanayal gunam venam, Pumaninikalayal adakam venam; Nadayal nripan vena, arikil mantrimar venam, Nadinu gunamulla prajakal venam. This is a folk song widely popular throughout the Malayalam speech community. It translates as: If you have a banyan tree, you must have an enclosing structure for it, you must have a temple near the tree and a pond close to the tree. For bathing you must have a pond, in the pond there must be lotus plants and afterwards must have sandal at home to use soon after the bath. Flowers should have fragrance, a deer must be virtuous and the damsels must be disciplined. A state must have a king, also ministers to assist and citizens useful to the state. In an English setting one will just see this song as random cluster of ideas but in the linguistic area corresponding to Malayalam, people will surely have the vision of a country side with banyan trees and people sitting on the enclosing chatting, temple near the tree and the rituals, the temple pond with lotus plants and taking bath in it before going into the temple for religious ceremonies, radical concept of well nurtured women being di sciplined, beautiful like a flower and virtuous, of Mahabeli and his rule in the region when the king and his subordinates along with good natured people lived a happy existence and so on. 3.3 Rituals Auspicious time When the idea of conducting a ceremony or event like marriage, starting something new etc comes to the mind of an English speaker he thinks of the time or place with regard to when and where it is comfortable, affordable and so on. But when a Malayalam Speaker speaks of events his perceptions often lingers about the auspiciousness of the day, place and time. When a speaker says that the time for marriage is so and so it means that the time has been chosen in accordance with beliefs of the person concerned and has been authenticated by a priest or religious head. Lighting the lamp at night In the region home to Malayalam, many households practice the ritual of lighting the lamp at night and placing it in front of the main door. For an English speaker this would rather be to have light in the darkness. But to a native the idea of lighting of the lamp at night means to cast away all evil forces of the dark and also brings in the image of the elderly in the house reading scriptures. So the perception for a native will be rich in culture fervor unlike a foreigner. 3.4 Beliefs Lunar eclipse When an English speaker speaks of lunar eclipse, the idea of sun blocking off moon comes to ones mind and nothing more. But when a Malayalam speaker does the same the belief that the asura Rahu is eating up moon resulting in the eclipse is also in background. So the mythological stories will be playing in ones mind while talking about lunar eclipse in Malayalam whereas nothing of that sort exists for the English Speaker. Sacred grove When a native speaker says sacred grove i.e. kavu, the religious elements comes to mind along with the wilderness housing idols and esp. the idea that it houses snakes considered holy and worshipped. But the English speech community will never associate snakes with a sacred grove because their culture doesnt give snakes such status in religious context. Therefore they will perceive a sacred grove as a holy place of worship covered in wilderness and nothing more. 3.5 Religion Address terms When we consider an English speaker, his address term for father doesnt change with religion. But in Malayalam, the natives following different faiths have different terms for addressing their father. While a Hindu calls his father achan, a Christian calls him appan and a Muslim calls him uppa. So while an English Speaker does in no way convey his religion in speech, a Malayalam speakers way of addressing his father reveals his faith and thereby shapes another persons perception of him/her. Greetings or Blessings As English speech community consists of people of who believe in faiths prophesying monotheism they usually say may God bless you or in Gods name. But as Malayalam natives are chiefly of faith which acknowledge existence of Goddesses and polytheism, they have phrases like bhagavathi nine kathu kollum which translates as the Goddess will protect you which cannot be realized in its utmost sense by the English speaker. 3.6 Cultural Festivals Onam The festival of Onam is something is deeply encoded in the cultural fervor of the Malayalam speech community. While the English speaker might grasp the idea, history and rituals associated with the festival, the festivities will never be relished by him/her like a native who has vivid images of the tasty Onasadhya [the rich lunch on the festive day], of a festival transcending religious boundaries, of the fun while setting up the pookalam [a type of flower arrangement] and much more. Vishu The festival of Vishu celebrated among the Malayalam speakers brings about the images of kannikonna [a tree bearing yellow flowers], kanni [a ritual associated with Vishu], kayineetam [he ritual of giving gifts to the young members of the family by the elders at time of Vishu] and so on. Even if the English speaker tries to realize the idea of Vishu, he/she will still never be able to have the same approach to it as a native because he lacks the social attributes. 3.7 Abusive Language Reference to female genitals The Malayalam culture seems to have some kind of predisposition towards using abusive language with reference to female genitals. When a native abuses someone he/she tends to abuse him/her with abusive terms associated with his female relations genitals. When an English speaker abuses he doesnt tend to be inclined to this unlike a Malayalam speaker which shows that former doesnt think along the lines thought upon by the latter. Affinity to female relations English language does not discriminate among males and females a lot when concerned about abusive words. But Malayalam shows strong affinity for abusive words which pertain to female relations of the person concerned .Most of the taboo words often tend to pertain to females which shows how much language and culture are related and how much perception is influenced. 3.8 Colors The Malayalam language has 7 colors: chumala [red], manja [yellow], karup [black], vella [white], uutu [violet], neela [blue] and pacha [green]. It doesnt have terms for orange, indigo, grey etc which thereby limits their world view to some extent. As some colors of the rainbow are absent, one who speaks of it will talk about in as different shades of a color unlike an English speaker who will be able to separate and talk about each color. 3.9 Address Terms Unlike English speech community which doesnt have a culture which has a caste system, Malayalam has in place a society with prevalent caste norms which defines the reality to some extent. The address terms often used reflect these caste norms present like in nom and aen used by the upper caste and lower caste people respectively in the place of personal pronoun I. Similarly words like adiyan and thampran were used by the workers and subordinates to landlords and kings instead of I and you. 3.10 Kinship Terms While talking of kinship terms too Malayalam boasts of a large number of words to signify the relations unlike English which has very few words in this aspect. While English confines itself to terms generalized to signify both maternal and paternal relations and both elder and younger relations, Malayalam provides specific terms for the same. For example vallyamma/vallyachan refers to the wife of elder brother or husband of the elder sister of the father and cheriyamma/cheriyachan refers to the wife of younger brother or husband of the younger sister of the father. Also it has a lot of synonyms for signifying the same relation like veli, antherjanam, bharya all for the same word wife. Then some relations absent in English language are also present like the concept of muracherukan/murapennu [which speaks of the son and daughter of a brother and sister respectively being deemed to enter wedlock at time of birth by custom] 3.11 Gender Malayalam has no grammatical indication of gender and is similar to English in this. But the disposition towards the two genders is entirely different for a Malayalam speaker from an English speaker. In Malayalam Language, many words for prostitute exist like veshya, vebicharini etc but there seems no word for a male counterpart. Also the concept of Devi [ installing a chosen female of the community as the Goddess of the temple, restricting her worldly pleasures and the deity to authorize rituals] has no where a parallel idea which floats the thought of a male being subjected to the same measures. 3.12 Time Concepts 4 nimisham/mathra/kashta/noti = 1 ganitham 10 ganithams = 1 Neduveerpu 6 neduveerpu/ 240 mathra = 1 vinazhika 60 vinazhika = 1 nazhika 60 nazhika = 1 day (Each present day hour = 2.5 nazhika. Also 1 day has 864,000 nimisham/mathra and present day consists of 86,400 seconds which implies that 1 second = 10 nimisham/mathra) 15 days = 1 paksham 2 pakshams/ 30 days = 1 month 365 days = 1 human year/Deva day/Divya day Therefore we find a clear demarcation between how the Malayalam speech community has varied concepts regarding time inculcated by culture when considered along the lines of an English speaker. While an English speaker normally would talk of time with terms like seconds, minutes, hour etc, a Malayalam native will perceive time not the same way as units differ. Also while talking of time the Malayalam speech community will have differing perception of the external reality as they dissect time not the way done by an English speaker because unlike the latter who thinks of the day as 24 hours, the former considers the same as 60 nazhika which will make no sense what so ever when conveyed to the latter. 3.13 Art Forms Art forms have their say in perception and speech communitys language. While an English speaker will have just things as signs or symbols, a Malayalam native has words like aangyam and mudra where aangyam simply refers to various signs but mudra has a deeper connotation of bringing in a dancers poses or steps. Similarly various words associated with art forms specific to the culture in question like arangetam'[ first performance of an artist or of an event], padham [refers to the various parts of a dance performance esp. Margamkalli, a Christian dance form] and many more are exclusive to Malayalam speech community. 3.14 Profession In Malayalam language, terms for various professions are typically associated with a particular group, like a specific gender, class or faith. For example, koythukaran/koythukari [a farm hand] is someone who brings along the perception of lower class. A vayidyan [practitioner of traditional medicines] brings with term an image a male member of the society and never does a female cross ones mind when the image concerned is talked about. Also when one talks of kapiyar [assistant to the priests in church] the imagery being projected is of a Christian follower who carries out the basic duties in the religious ceremonies. 3.15 Cuisines The Malayalam Speech community boasts of a large variety of culture specific delicacies which in no way can be translated and grasped by an English native. Cuisines are deeply cushioned with cultural fervor may it be religion or occasion. Be it pathiri [ pancake made of rice flour] is a typical Muslim food item or pallukachal [ boiling of milk] which marks the beginning of a new life in a new house. 3.16 Dress Chattyum-mundum [a native attire of females among native Christians] illustrates how a particular reference to a type of dress has influence over the speakers reflection of reality. While an English speaker might identify the dress and who wear it he will not be able to grasp the various images of Rosary wielding old females and so on. Also mundum-neriyathum [a traditional attire of 2 mundus making a set, with one mundu worn similar to men as lower garment and the other worn on the upper half resembling a sari] identitys the person as a part of Hindu religion, most probably the higher class. 4. Language and culture: Research Findings from Mother Tongue Consider language  as an exclusively  human  ability for acquiring and using complex systems of  communication and culture as an integrated pattern of human knowledge, faith, and manners that depends upon the ability for representative notion and communal education. Although all observers may be confronted by the same physical evidence in the form of experiential data and although they may be capable of externally similar acts of observation, a persons picture of the universe or view of the world differs as a function of the particular language or languages that person knows. (Lee 1996, page 87) .When one takes into consideration the evidences gathered from Malayalam, [mother tongue/language] Sapir-Whorf hypothesis remains relevant though the strong variant fails to hold ground and the weaker doctrine dominates the argument. Linguistic determinism can no longer be thought as a strong claim as the examples cited as evidence clearly demarcate between the determining and influen cing effect on display between language and culture. The main problem of which among language and culture influences the other still remains debatable but an agreement upon the use of the term influence rather than determine has been reached or linguistic relativism has been recognised over the deterministic approach. The proof offered by the Mother tongue have illustrated how cultural fervour stands as an obstacle in the way of a translator who has to keep in mind the native culture, the resultant culture and idea originally conveyed all have to be kept in mind and given their due. The whole variety of examples taken from all aspects of language like Kinship terms, Proverbs, Folk songs, Religion, Time units and many more provide conclusive evidence regarding the two way relation of language and culture i.e. both are interdependent and one cannot be considered in isolation from another. The proof that anthropological studies and linguistics studies must go in hand in hand and the pe rception of world reality gets enriched in being multilingual is the straightforward answer of the research. How languages across the globe have similarities like being sexist, having culturally rich vocabulary etc are some of the notable results. The human e

Kurt Vonnegut :: essays papers

Kurt Vonnegut Kurt Vonnegut is one of the greatest pacifist writers in the world, although criticized by many he still tries to get his message across to the public. Kurt Vonnegut has written many novels in his lifetime the most well known is Slaughterhouse Five, which tells of his experiences somewhat in World War Two. Throughout all his novels he seems to keep the same â€Å"recurring Vonnegut theme is the evil that occurs when technology is allowed by man to run rampant. I am the enemy of all technological progress that threatens mankind.†(Saturday Evening Post, May/June 86 pg. 38) Kurt Vonnegut was born on November 11th, in Indianapolis, Indiana. He was born into a family where the father was a respectable architect, but less than a year after his parents marriage came World War One. â€Å"Prohibition ended the Lieber income from brewing and the Great Depression brought a halt to building and hence unemployment to to Vonnegut’s architect father. Looking back on those years, Vonnegut has said that the time of the Great Depression was not particularly hard for him.†(American Writers, A Collection of Literary Biographies, Supplement 2,Part 2 pg 754) Kurt Vonnegut had his first writing experience a Shortridge Highschool in Indianapolis. He then attended Cornell University where he majored in chemistry and biology. After being kicked out of Cornell he then Enlisted in the army. Soon after his enlistment his mother committed suicide and his father died roughly 13 years after. He had become a German prisoner of war in 1944 which was the inspration fo r his book Slaughterhouse Five. After returning home he began the start of many novels. Many things had affected his life such key items as the Great Depression, his parents dying when he was young, being captured in the war and the death of his 41 year old sister. This would lead him to mock how society would be in years to come. In his first novel Player Piano he makes fun of an electric company that sacrifices humanity for technology. This was set in years to come where scientists and other people of that field were attempting to have machines take over humans jobs. This is the start of many personal experiences that motivate him to either mock society or warn them if they are not careful. In using his own experiences he makes his points more realistic.

Immanuel Kant on law and justice Essay

To be moral living human beings there must be a guiding action. This action varies depending on the degree of obligation: law, rule or maxim. A law should promote and protect the common good. Above all, a law must be just and reasonable to follow. A rule is a prescribed guide for conduct or action that indicates how we ought to act to behave in certain situations. Rules are not strictly legislated but are nevertheless obligatory guidelines for actions. A maxim is a general truth or rule of conduct. Immanuel Kant’s political teaching may be summarized in a phrase: republican government and international organization. In more characteristically Kantian terms, it is doctrine of the state based upon the law (Rechtsstaat) and of eternal peace. Indeed, in each of these formulations, both terms express the same idea: that of legal constitution or of â€Å"peace through law. Rechtsstaat is a doctrine in continental European legal thinking, originally borrowed from German jurisprudence, which can be translated as a â€Å"legal state†, â€Å"state of law†, â€Å"state of justice†, â€Å"state of rights† or â€Å"state based on justice and integrity†. It is a â€Å"constitutional state† in which the exercise of governmental power is constrained by the law, and is often tied to the Anglo-American concept of the rule of law, but differs from it in that it also places an emphasis on what is just (i. e. a concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion or equity). In a Rechtsstaat, the power of the state is limited in order to protect citizens from the arbitrary exercise of authority. In a Rechtsstaat the citizens share legally-based civil liberties and they can use the courts. A country cannot be a liberal democracy without first being a Rechtsstaat. German writers usually place Immanuel Kant’s theories at the beginning of their accounts of the movement toward the Rechtsstaat. Kant’s approach is based on the supremacy of a country’s written constitution. This supremacy must create guarantees for implementation of his central idea: a permanent peaceful life as a basic condition for the happiness of its people and their prosperity. Kant proposed that constitutionalism and constitutional government ought to be sufficient to guarantee this happiness. Kant had thus formulated the main problem of constitutionalism: â€Å"The constitution of a state is eventually based on the morals of its citizens, which, in its turn, is based on the goodness of this constitution. † A Kantian justice system would thus solely focus on what was done, rather than on the character of the person who did it. No excuses regarding a criminal’s genome, upbringing, history of mental illness, or socioeconomic status can exonerate him from receiving punishment for the criminal act. The fact that a man was abused during his childhood does not justify his infliction of similar abuse on others later in life. Many duties are developed into laws because society has deemed them important for the protection of the individual. There are some laws that are written to safe guard the individual and others for the community. All laws must be written to uphold society which includes protecting the rights of all people in both the majority and minority consequently all laws must possess certain common traits. Immanuel Kant believed that all humans are born inherently bad and must try hard to be good. This model of thought is of immense help to understanding what actions Kant saw as necessary for the creation of justice within the real world, since, once again, every individual’s worldview is based upon that individual’s own set of experiences. â€Å"Pure reason is a perfect unity; and therefore, if the principle presented by it proves to be insufficient for the solution of even a single one of those questions to which the very nature of reason gives birth, we must reject it, as we could not be perfectly certain of its sufficiency in the case of the others†. (Critique of Pure Reason, 3) Kant on Contemporary Issues Contemporary Issue: A proposal by the government to legalize theft. According to Immanuel Kant’s theories and views he would try to oppose this law. The general definition of theft is the taking of another person’s property without that person’s permission or consent with the intent to deprive the rightful owner of it. Immanuel Kant would consider this an immoral action on the individual’s part therefore resulting in punishment. When someone is punished for something it is because they did something abominable. Humans act not only on impulse as effected by laws of nature, but also out of conscience choice based on principles and these principles tell us how we ought to act. Our conscience as a capacity has a fundamental sense of value and personal responsibility. If theft were to be legalized, it would result in a never-ending chain of people committing evil actions to further their own need. People would become more selfish and greedy. Because Kant believes humans are born inherently bad we must strive every day to avoid temptation which we can only be redeemed by good behaviour and the grace of God. This would also go against Kant’s ideal justice system. â€Å"Nothing can escape our notice; for what reason produces from itself cannot lie concealed, but must be brought to the light by reason itself, as soon as we have discovered the common principle of the ideas we seek. † (Critique of Pure Reason, 5). Kant’s theory is his belief that it should always be possible, within our power, to do the right thing. Kant believes that rational humans are agents, they have plans, and they make deliberate choices. It is this fact about humans that Kant’s ethical theory seeks to enshrine and protect. Human agency should never be sacrificed for anything less valuable and everything is less valuable. Justice has a moral obligation to always do. The first duty of justice is to never treat people as mere means to one’s own ends. But treating a person as an end in themselves is to do more than respect this duty: it is also to assist them in achieving their morally lawful ends. For these reasons Immanuel Kant would not allow to legalize theft. Our government, justice duty and morality would all be altered if such a thing were to happen and that was Kant’s biggest fear that our humanity would be consumed by materialistic things. We need laws and peace in order for us, as people, to be rational human beings. Work Cited: â€Å"Germany. † – Understandings of the Rule of Law – Wikis Der Freien UniversitA ¤t Berlin. N. p. , n. d. Web. 21 Sept. 2013. Kant, Immanuel, J. M. D. Meiklejohn, Thomas Kingsmill Abbott, James Creed Meredith, Immanuel Kant, Immanuel Kant, and Immanuel Kant. The Critique of Pure Reason. Chicago: Encyclop? dia Britannica, 1955. Print. Rauscher, Frederick, Rauscher,. â€Å"Kant’s Social and Political Philosophy. † Stanford University. Stanford University, 24 July 2007. Web. 21 Sept. 2013. â€Å"Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Judgment. † Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Judgment. N. p. , n. d. Web. 21 Sept. 2013.

Motherhood in Sula

Toni Morrison’s Sula revolves around the relationship of her two main characters, Sula and Nel. The childhood friends grow apart with age. Although it is indicated that their friendship is the most important relationship they participate in, they eventually betray each other and lead dishonest lives. Throughout the novel, we see their constantly deteriorating relationship as a result of absence of a family life. Sula is a novel about the influence family may have on the make up of someone’s personality.In particular, the novel examines the effect parents can have on their children and the conscious effort the main characters make to be unlike their mothers. Nel’s maternal grandmother was a prostitute in New Orleans and so her daughter Helene (Nel’s mother) does everything in her power to lead a life that opposes the path her mother took. She holds everyone to the highest standard, sees everyone as the best they can be, and expects everyone else to see her the same way. Those who fall short of these expectations are subject to judgment, in her mind.Helene plays a significant role in the early parts of the novel—she is an important figure in Medallion, described as â€Å"an impressive woman,† who â€Å"won all social battles with presence. † (18) In this first description of Helene, Morrison quickly falls into an epic catalogue, repeating the first words of each short part of a long sentence again and again (â€Å"Helene who†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). This repetition allows the reader to understand the influence Helene has on the town; we see why she is respected. Unlike her mother in everyway, she is well known for the good she has done.She has an esteemed presence. Morrison emphasizes the details of her success to highlight how different she has made her life from her mother’s. There is an episode in the early parts of the novel, however, that keeps everything we learn about Helene in perspective. She is a well-resp ected woman within the Bottom, but on the train trip she takes with Nel, we see that her religious and respectful nature does not protect her from racism. When treated with disrespect by a racist train conductor, Helene smiles â€Å"like a street pup. (21) Her attempt to appease the train conductor confirms his superiority and spurs a sense of anger in the black soldiers that observe the event. This occurrence on the train establishes a sense of place for Morrison’s readers. We see Helene in a new light. She is respected and loved in her town, but to those who do not know her, she is simply a black middle class woman—one of a demographic that in 1920 (and to this day) receives the least respect. After Morrison provides a full understanding of Helene, we meet the woman who has inadvertently shaped her life and clearly, Nel’s mother wants nothing more than to return to the Bottom.Helene plays a minor role in the novel as a whole (she quickly disappears after the beginning). In understanding her character, though, a more complete understanding of Nel can be accomplished. Just like her mother, Nel wishes to be nothing like her mother. Many times during her childhood, we see her attempts to differentiate herself from her mother. Perhaps it is a simple case of the grass is always greener, but Nel’s perception of Sula’s home is indicative of her attempts to become different. Nel loves the unkempt nature of the house.She loves the noise and the people and even the lack of attention that Eva gives to Sula. Although she will grow to live a life that is full of order, as a child, she looks for opportunities to remove herself from that world. Sula is a quintessential example of this escape. She realizes this desire to be different upon her return from the trip. She doesn’t want to be anyone’s child; she develops a sense of â€Å"me-ness,† and likens her mother’s true personality to â€Å"custard pudding,â₠¬  feeble and afraid to challenge societal structure. 29; 28) Most important of all the changes the train trip provides, though, is Nel’s newfound â€Å"strength to cultivate a friend in spite of her mother. † (29) This strength opens the door for Sula to change her life. Nel and Sula’s relationship is a complex one, which allows for the novel to become incredibly in depth and driven by interesting characters. Sula’s relationships with her mother and grandmother are opposite of Nel’s relationship with her mother. This is, perhaps, why their personalities differ so much once they reach adulthood. Both become their mothers.Her mother and grandmother, who obviously favor her brother, essentially ignore Sula. Hannah, her mother, is a very sexual woman who enjoys the company of many men in town to the disapproval of Sula. Because of her mother’s actions, Sula views her with an indifferent and callous sense of hostility. Still, Sula reacts in a n egative way when hears her mother say, â€Å"‘I just don’t like her’† in reference to her daughter. (57) The difference between loving someone and liking someone is made clear here. It develops the idea of a mother’s ambivalent love.When a child is aggravating, it can be frustrating to love them. But for Hannah, she simply does not like the person Sula is becoming. This realization, for Sula, removes her from her childhood. She sees the idea of love in a new light—it can be an overwhelming feeling that commands responsibility and irritation. With this comment, we see Sula as an adult for the first time, exposed to the negative side of human emotion for the first time. Sula’s relationship with her mother comes to a harrowing climax when Hannah is set on flames and Sula stands and watches.She is not shocked, we later learn, but intrigued. This says much about Sula as a person, but it also is interesting concerning her dynamic with her mo ther. She acts as her mother would have in this situation; she is cold and disconnected, and cares little about the person in need. Sula’s reaction to the fire is strikingly similar to the way her mother brought her up. Perhaps all of the disregard Hannah showed towards Sula came back in her death. Sula, with no feeling of love or like for her mother, simply watched her die.Hannah’s words about Sula before she died, that she did not like her, freed Sula, in a way. Because Hannah did not like Sula, Sula felt no need to love Hannah. The connection was lost. Interestingly, at her mother’s death, we see Sula become comparable to her mother for the first time. Sula eventually becomes more and more like her mother, with no emotional connections to anyone. Almost with no regard for the person she cares for most in the world, she sleeps with Nel’s husband. She doesn’t know the real name of the person she participates in her only romantic relationship with. Disconnected and completely unemotional, Sula as the adult she becomes is first seen at her mother’s death. Nel and Sula, much like many people in the world, are defined by their mothers. Any attempt they made throughout the novel to push themselves further from what their mothers were proved futile. Helene’s over-bearing motherhood and incredible need for order resulted in Nel acting out slightly in adolescence but eventually becoming as stable and constant and respectable as her mother.Hannah’s lack of attention towards Sula and constant promiscuity led to Sula acting in the same way, with no love toward the people who cared most about her. Their mothers differ on an incredible number of features and perhaps this is one reason why Nel and Sula’s relationship goes from sister-like to betrayal and hatred. Morrison makes it clear in this novel that we are what our mothers make us, whether we make a conscious effort to do so, like Nel, or if we are so affec ted by the ways in which they act that we simply have no choice but to fall into their past routines, like Sula.

How to use subheads - Emphasis

How to use subheads How to use subheads Its not always true that your readers will want to read everything youve written particularly if its a 300-page document. Even if youve done all you can to break it up and make it as readable as possible, the demands of time we all face may mean they can only skim it. At the risk of stating the obvious, subheads can signal to your reader what linked paragraphs are about and help them to navigate through more easily to the most relevant parts. But they should say more than just Introduction or Part 1. Make them explicit instead. So 40 years in the business is better than Our experience. Combined, they should tell the story, working as an alternative summary. This means theyll also help you to check back over your own route: did you pick the best way? Transition words (so, however, on the other hand, nevertheless, moreover, furthermore etc.) also signpost meaning to your reader, helping them to understand your points and stay with you through your changes of direction as you motor towards your conclusion. Be careful though: endless moreovers and furthermores can be tedious and wont stitch a loose collection of random thoughts into a compelling argument, no matter how many you use. Far better to plan first and work out a logical structure even before you touch your keyboard. There are more writing tips like this in our 60-page style guide, The Write Stuff. To find out more, click here. Or to get a complimentary copy, simply use our contact form and select style guide from the drop-down menu.

Alphonse Capone Essays - Five Points Gang, The Untouchables

Alphonse Capone Essays - Five Points Gang, The Untouchables Alphonse Capone Alphonse Capone Born 1/17/1899, Brooklyn Died 1/25/1947, Florida Al Capone is one of the most recognized names in American history. Alphonse was born to Neapolitan immigrants Gabriel and Teresa. His surname, originally Caponi, had been Americanized to Capone. The Capone family included James, Ralph, Salvatore (Frank), Alphonse, John, Albert, Matthew, Rose and Mafalda. Capone was proud to be an American I'm no Italian. I was born in Brooklyn, he often said. Al went to school with Salvatore Lucania, later known as Lucky Luciano. At about the age of ten he began to follow up-and-coming gangster Johnny Torrio, also a Neapolitan. At fourteen he quit school after striking a teacher. Capone and Lucky Luciano joined a gang known as the Five Pointers, on Manhattan's Lower East Side. Capone worked for Frank Yale, president of the Unione Siciliane, as a bouncer and bartender. One night he made a remark about the sister of Frank Galluciano, and Galluciano slashed Capone's face with a pocket knife, leaving three large scars on the left side of his face. For much of his criminal career, newspapers would call Capone by the hated name Scarface. Incredibly, Capone choose to forgive Galluciano and, years later, hired him as a bodyguard. Johnny Torrio had moved to Chicago to work for his uncle, Big Jim Colosimo. Torrio sent for his trusted lieutenant, Capone. Suspected of two murders, Capone was eager to leave New York. Capone worked under Torrio as a bouncer and thug. On May 11, 1920, Big Jim Colosimo was assassinated in his own cafe by an unknown killer. Johnny Torrio was now the leader of the most powerful gang in Chicago, and Capone his right-hand man. Torrio imposed a peace treaty on the other gangs, which lasted until the O'Banion-Genna war. Torrio was shot by O'Banion men in reprisal for O'Banion's slaying. He survived, barely. Before retiring to Italy, Torrio turned over leadership of his gang to Capone. Jen3 The Di Vito monument, a short distance east of the Bishops' mausoleum, features busts of Mr. and Mrs. Di Vito in shallow alcoves. The Ionic columns on the side are partially covered with clinging vines. Jen4 Mount Carmel is one of Chicago's finest graveyards. It is located in west suburban Hillside, across the street from Queen of Heaven. Mt Carmel is the oldest Catholic cemetery in the western part of the Archdiocese of Chicago. The vast majority of persons buried here are Italian. Italian traditions include statuary, and photographs on the monument, and private mausoleums. There are over 400 private family mausoleums in Mt. Carmel, more than any other cemetery in the area. Italian immigrants in Chicago preserved their culture, and Mount Carmel has a wonderful Old-World feel. The most popular attraction is the Bishops' mausoleum, which received over 50,000 visitors in the two months after the death of Cardinal Bernardin in October 1996. But to many, Mt. Carmel is equally famous for the graves of Chicago's notorious gangsters of the 1920s - including Al Capone, best known of them all. Bibliography I really cant say anything

Finance Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Finance Analysis - Essay Example As of today, more than 2.5 million people of the entire UK population trust the day-to-day operations of McDonalds and also the high standard quality of service and the value for the money spent by them3. D. Main products and services - McDonald's menu concentrates on five main ingredients: beef, chicken, bread, potatoes and milk, which account for 255 million of food expenditure. The company's main menu lists its basic food offering: the Big Mac, which still exists as a major seller; other standard product names come from the McDonald's convention of adding a 'Mc' to a particular item. So, a chicken sandwich becomes a 'McChicken' sandwich and chicken nuggets become chicken 'McNuggets'. This idea has been extended to their dessert range, with the creation of the 'McFlurry' ice cream5. E. Geographic area of operations - McDonald's is one of only a handful of brands that command instant recognition in virtually every country of the world. McDonald's began with one restaurant in the US in 1955 and today there are more than 26,500 restaurants in over 119 countries, serving around 39 million people every day - making McDonald's by far the largest food service company in the world6. ... The business is managed as distinct geographic segments: United States; Europe; Asia/Pacific, Middle East and Africa (APMEA); Latin America; and Canada. In addition, throughout this report we present a segment entitled "Corporate& Other" that includes corporate activities and non-McDonald's brands (e.g., Boston Market). The U.S. and Europe segments each account for approximately 35% of total revenues. France, Germany and the United Kingdom (U.K.), collectively, account for approximately 60% of Europe's revenues; and Australia, China and Japan (a 50%-owned affiliate accounted for under the equity method), collectively, account for nearly 50% of APMEA's revenues. These six markets along with the U.S. and Canada are referred to as "major markets" throughout this report and comprise approximately 70% of total revenues.7 F. Recent developments - Extra Value Meals and Happy Meals are two of the most successful innovations of McDonalds. Extra Value Meals offer customers a hamburger, drink and fries sold together at a fixed money-saving price. Similarly, McDonald's Happy Meal boxes offer parents a simple and appealing package, with a smaller portioned meal served in a fun box with a toy. The reason behind the continued success of the family business of McDonalds is these innovations being instrumental. FINANCIAL ANALYSIS a. Sales and Income Record: Fiscal Years 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Sales ($) 14,738 15,201 16,825 18,594 19,832 21,586 % change in sales (each yr) 4 3.14 10.6 10.5 6.65 8.84 Net Income ($) 1,637 894 1,471 2,279 2,602 3,544 % change in net income (each yr) 69 -45 65 54 14 36 8 GRAPH OF SALES & NET INCOME, FY 2001 -

Overview of digital forensics at NIST Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Overview of digital forensics at NIST - Article Example Due to the increased computer related crimes, it is a fundamental requirement for any organization to employ these digital forensic skills to establish and solve their security issues. Use of these forensic techniques provides an additional assistance to the organization since it helps in troubleshooting, identification and repair of operational issues within a system, reviewing of the operating systems (Barnett, par. 9). Also provides recovery of lost data from computer systems in case of malicious or accidental damage. It provides protection of sensitive information which would otherwise be used for malicious purposes and even acquisition of data from the hosts that can be used by the company in the future. Furthermore, it also gives an opportunity to monitor log entries and prevention of policy violations. Apart from all the support these digital forensics, there are shortcomings that accompany their use and benefits outlined above. One disadvantage is the difficulty in obtaining information from mobile devices like phones, iPads, and personal digital assistants. Law enforcement and forensics on these devices are still a challenge since most of the mobile devices require specialized interfaces, storage, and hardware. Also getting information from the cloud storage space is tedious because of the complicated cloud

Data Collection for Subprime Mortgages for a dissertation Essay

Data Collection for Subprime Mortgages for a dissertation - Essay Example nal Bureau of Economic Research, describing the large scale impact caused by the financial market crisis in the year 2007, which was by far the largest financial shock since the Great Depression. The magnitude of the crisis could be comprehended by the widespread damage caused on the markets as well as other financial institutions which were the core of the financial system. Information about various aspects of subprime mortgage such as meaning & definition, the developments in sub prime financing for understanding various factors behind sudden substantial deterioration in subprime markets and its extensive impact on the broader financial markets, effect of widespread distribution of exposure to subprime debt on the financial markets, behavior of subprime borrowers in relation to loans with high default rates, etc could be found in the annual report published by The Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco (2007). This report could be accessed from (http://www.frbsf.org/publications/federalreserve/annual/2007/subprime.pdf) The report on â€Å"Analysis of Subprime Mortgage Servicing Performance† (Feb, 2008) by the State Foreclosure Prevention Group also contains vital information on servicers of subprime mortgage loans, description on the State Working Group, as well as key findings on issues such as loss mitigation option in case of delinquent borrowers, increase in use of loan modifications and other home retention options by servicers, payment resets on hybrid ARMs, state of the refinance options etc. This report could be accessed from: Primary sources of data collection or interviews would not be a feasible option in this case since the sheer magnitude and quantity of the data required for this type of research would make data collection from primary sources extremely time consuming and expensive. Moreover, primary sources of data collection would not be able to capture the essential outcomes required in this type of research. The type of data collection should

Change Management and Management Styles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Change Management and Management Styles - Essay Example Therefore, these scholars suggest that change commences with leadership; thus, organizations should have leaders projecting constructive behaviors. Ajmal, Farooq, Noman and Awan (2013) argue that change is managed by visionary transformers, who are expected to facilitate strategic change that is led by quality. In this case, organizations are focus applying technological advancement in gaining competitive advantage. In order to facilitate these changes, organizations are expected to adaptive towards change, thereby coping with potential challenges. On the other hand, these scholars suggest that organizations should convert into learning organization during their first stages in change process. Conventional organizations are transformed into learning organization based on requirement of fundamental in leadership. Therefore, managers are expected to make necessary clarifications of missions of organizations, while helping employees to be innovative in a learning environment. According to Fernandez and Rainey (2006), change is managed through establishment of research that analyzes the interactive effects of factors through application of research designs and methods; in fact, managers applied contingency approach in implementation of change. Furthermore, managers focus on application of multivariate statistical techniques and large-sample data set regarding different levels of organization in various management settings; these scholars suggest that change can be facilitated by immediate research, which can enable refining of general proposition that are used for synthesize of theories, and evaluating competitors propositions. On the other hand, they suggest that managers can confront challenges by analyzing association between the content and process of change. Kelly (2009) presents a case, which is concerned with management tasks and procedures involved in facilitate changing strategies. In this case, this scholar suggests that managers should recognize ways

Data Collection for Subprime Mortgages for a dissertation Essay

Data Collection for Subprime Mortgages for a dissertation - Essay Example nal Bureau of Economic Research, describing the large scale impact caused by the financial market crisis in the year 2007, which was by far the largest financial shock since the Great Depression. The magnitude of the crisis could be comprehended by the widespread damage caused on the markets as well as other financial institutions which were the core of the financial system. Information about various aspects of subprime mortgage such as meaning & definition, the developments in sub prime financing for understanding various factors behind sudden substantial deterioration in subprime markets and its extensive impact on the broader financial markets, effect of widespread distribution of exposure to subprime debt on the financial markets, behavior of subprime borrowers in relation to loans with high default rates, etc could be found in the annual report published by The Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco (2007). This report could be accessed from (http://www.frbsf.org/publications/federalreserve/annual/2007/subprime.pdf) The report on â€Å"Analysis of Subprime Mortgage Servicing Performance† (Feb, 2008) by the State Foreclosure Prevention Group also contains vital information on servicers of subprime mortgage loans, description on the State Working Group, as well as key findings on issues such as loss mitigation option in case of delinquent borrowers, increase in use of loan modifications and other home retention options by servicers, payment resets on hybrid ARMs, state of the refinance options etc. This report could be accessed from: Primary sources of data collection or interviews would not be a feasible option in this case since the sheer magnitude and quantity of the data required for this type of research would make data collection from primary sources extremely time consuming and expensive. Moreover, primary sources of data collection would not be able to capture the essential outcomes required in this type of research. The type of data collection should

A mini essay regarding sexuality, and sexualized violence and sexual

A mini regarding sexuality, and sexualized violence and sexual assault - Essay Example In addition, about 99 percent of the convicted rapists are males (RAINN, 2010). Prevalence of rape in different countries varies, where some report higher rates than others do. Sweden for instance has one of the highest reported incidents of rape in developed countries and in the globe. Various factors account to this disparity in incidents of rape. These include inconsistencies in definition of rape, underreporting and ignorance (Meyer, 2006). Different societies define rape in various contexts causing disparities in reported incidents. In some societies, it is acceptable for a man to have sex with a woman irrespective of her consent. In such situations, the channels for reporting such cases are virtually non-existent and victims are left with no option of seeking legal redress. Moreover, the society focuses more on male – female rape, overlooking other types such as male-male, female- male , and female –female sexual abuse (Malamuth, 1986). In societies with low literacy levels, many crimes including rape go unreported because of strong cultural or traditional values that prevent victims from reporting due to fear. Hence, in conservative, third world and developing nations the incidents of rape could be higher than reported data because of ignorance , underreporting and other factors. Similarly, developed countries report high incidents of rape because victims are more informed about their rights and there are competent and broad legal definitions of the crime. Sexual violence is caused by various factors as explained by many theories to explain the phenomena. Meyer(2006) classified these into two categories, namely offender based factors and societal influence Offender based factors include biological make up of an individual such as high levels of hormones that increases aggression, including testosterone and serotonin, abusing drugs such as alcohol, in addition to sex and power motives. Societal influence includes

Change Management and Management Styles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Change Management and Management Styles - Essay Example Therefore, these scholars suggest that change commences with leadership; thus, organizations should have leaders projecting constructive behaviors. Ajmal, Farooq, Noman and Awan (2013) argue that change is managed by visionary transformers, who are expected to facilitate strategic change that is led by quality. In this case, organizations are focus applying technological advancement in gaining competitive advantage. In order to facilitate these changes, organizations are expected to adaptive towards change, thereby coping with potential challenges. On the other hand, these scholars suggest that organizations should convert into learning organization during their first stages in change process. Conventional organizations are transformed into learning organization based on requirement of fundamental in leadership. Therefore, managers are expected to make necessary clarifications of missions of organizations, while helping employees to be innovative in a learning environment. According to Fernandez and Rainey (2006), change is managed through establishment of research that analyzes the interactive effects of factors through application of research designs and methods; in fact, managers applied contingency approach in implementation of change. Furthermore, managers focus on application of multivariate statistical techniques and large-sample data set regarding different levels of organization in various management settings; these scholars suggest that change can be facilitated by immediate research, which can enable refining of general proposition that are used for synthesize of theories, and evaluating competitors propositions. On the other hand, they suggest that managers can confront challenges by analyzing association between the content and process of change. Kelly (2009) presents a case, which is concerned with management tasks and procedures involved in facilitate changing strategies. In this case, this scholar suggests that managers should recognize ways

A mini essay regarding sexuality, and sexualized violence and sexual

A mini regarding sexuality, and sexualized violence and sexual assault - Essay Example In addition, about 99 percent of the convicted rapists are males (RAINN, 2010). Prevalence of rape in different countries varies, where some report higher rates than others do. Sweden for instance has one of the highest reported incidents of rape in developed countries and in the globe. Various factors account to this disparity in incidents of rape. These include inconsistencies in definition of rape, underreporting and ignorance (Meyer, 2006). Different societies define rape in various contexts causing disparities in reported incidents. In some societies, it is acceptable for a man to have sex with a woman irrespective of her consent. In such situations, the channels for reporting such cases are virtually non-existent and victims are left with no option of seeking legal redress. Moreover, the society focuses more on male – female rape, overlooking other types such as male-male, female- male , and female –female sexual abuse (Malamuth, 1986). In societies with low literacy levels, many crimes including rape go unreported because of strong cultural or traditional values that prevent victims from reporting due to fear. Hence, in conservative, third world and developing nations the incidents of rape could be higher than reported data because of ignorance , underreporting and other factors. Similarly, developed countries report high incidents of rape because victims are more informed about their rights and there are competent and broad legal definitions of the crime. Sexual violence is caused by various factors as explained by many theories to explain the phenomena. Meyer(2006) classified these into two categories, namely offender based factors and societal influence Offender based factors include biological make up of an individual such as high levels of hormones that increases aggression, including testosterone and serotonin, abusing drugs such as alcohol, in addition to sex and power motives. Societal influence includes

College Application Essay Example for Free

College Application Essay At some point in our lives, we all have one significant experience that can affect us. Whether this experience is big or small, it still happened and made its impact on you. I remember when I first pushed myself to do something that pushed me out of my comfort zone and do more during that time period. That something was to be better than my siblings and be more successful than they were. My older brother and sister were good kids, but never did what they said they were going to do after high school. My sister had wanted to be a nursing assistant for the longest time and my brother had wanted to be a lawyer. Although my sister wasn’t the smartest in school she still passed and graduated with her class, but did not go to college. My brother on the other hand had a different path to become a lawyer, which he could have with his grades, but did not. He decided to enlist in the military and hoped to go to school afterwards. Although he had planned it all out, he didn’t follow it. Instead a tragedy struck him while in the military and is now discharged medically and only working a part time job. Of course I don’t believe the military is a bad job at all and I believe that if things happened differently for him his life would be different now. Today he is still undecided when and where he wants to attend college. My older siblings always told me high school would be different and harder than the smaller elementary and middle schools. I knew this but I didn’t mind because I knew that I had wanted to excel in school to do something successful afterwards. I didn’t just want to be more successful than my siblings but it made me realize that if you don’t drive yourself to work hard in school you don’t always achieve what you want to do. By pushing myself harder in school I’ve made an effect on myself that has put me in a great position throughout my years of high school. Through high school I’ve had the privilege of being able to take high honor classes and even college classes that have allowed me to be ahead of the game. But in order to be ahead of the game I have had to study hard, do my homework and pay attention closely to the classes that I have taken. I believe within my four years of high school I have achieved so much more than my siblings all from great teachers and other role models in my life teaching me various things. Even throughout these times it has been some stressful days and weeks I still was calm and handled everything in a well-timed manner. Therefore, I have been able to push myself one step closer to what I want to do and it has  encouraged me greatly so I can see what I may do soon in the future. My risk to go out of my comfort zone and put more pressure on my shoulders has been a great deal for me. I hope that me pushing myself to do harder and better work throughout high school helps me in my later future studies and work.

Benefits of Network Management Tools

Benefits of Network Management Tools 1. Introduction These are the various network management tools used by network manager to verify network connection, monitor network packets, analyse captured packets, troubleshoot network connectively failure, diagnosing network slow performance and identify source of incident in order to make the network available 24 hours seven days a week. 1.1 Benefits of Network Management Tools Network manager benefits from network monitoring tools in so many ways as described below Easy migration from old legacy application to new technologies For example when network administrator is migrating form a legacy IOS based application to LWAPP using Airwave Management Platform software tool for wireless network management, net work administrator is provided with centralized control for Wi-Fi networks where roaming data and information as well as historical data are kept as airwave gives a common platform to manage the devices. This is beneficial to the network manager because it makes it easy for migration from old legacy applications to new technologies and makes it easy to monitor the network usage all the time Quick identification of network or server failure when the server of a portion of the network is down, before users get to notice the failure network administrator receives a warm and rectified the fault and providing the network manager with means of monitoring and providing network availability round-the-clock. Using network-monitoring tool like ipMonitoring with attributes such as such as reporting, user tracking, access point configuration management and rogue AP discovery, network administrator is able to monitor any networked device on the corporate intranet and TCP/IP LAN and receive alerts immediately depending the administrators configuration of receiving alerts; this can be received through alarm, e-mail, or third-party software when a connection fails. Diagnosis and troubleshooting, Network monitor can be used to diagnose why the server computer is not communicating with the clients computers on the network on a local area network, for example network administrator can configure network monitor to capture all the frames on the network, this includes source and destination address of the computer sending and receiving frames, protocols used as well as part of message sent. Net work administrator analyses this information to locate the source of problem on the network and troubleshoots it. Checking for connectivity of a computer online for example using ping command to check if a computer is online helps network manager for example when user calls and said they can logon to networked computer to troubleshoot and diagnose the network manager uses ping to find out if the computer in on the network or not. This is beneficial to the administrator because it helps him to identify where the problem is originating. 1.2 Structure of management information Structure of management information is a network component used in network management which is used in simple network management; its main role is to define set of module identity, object type and notification type. Structure of management information shows how related managed objects such as object names, types of data that can be stored in an object and how its transmission over the network for example action done to retrieve vale of an object with codes 2. Use Datagram Protocol User datagram protocol is a transport layer protocol that is used to send packets to computers in networked environments. User Data Protocol has the following advantages over Transport Control Protocol Connectionless When communicating with two computers on the network, user data protocol doesnt negotiate connection between the two client computers but just transfers data as its received No Connection State User data protocol doesnt maintain and doesnt keep track of any parameters such as buffers sent, congestion control and rate which data is transfer for example when used in server environment, user data protocol is able to support more active clients if a particular application is run over it because it doesnt acknowledge packets being sent or received. Small packet header over head User data protocol has got a smaller header of 8bytes of overhead making it faster in transferring data Unregulated send rate, user data protocol doesnt have congested control mechanism and data is sent at rate, which it has been generated by the application in use for example taking into account the CPU, clock rate at the source of data. 2.1 Applications layer protocol used by User data protocols as Transport layer protocol Domain Name Service Is a database like that converts the computers fully qualified domain name that are easy to be remembers such as www.yahoo.com into IP address such as 201.171.25.0. 6 that are then used by computers to connect/ communicate with each other Steaming multimedia This is the continuous transfer of video, voice and digital data that is received and showed/displayed in real time for example podcast and webcast Routing protocol Routing protocol is used to determine which path to be used to sent/ transmit data packets across a network. 2.2 Reasons why UDP is preferred over TCP Domain Name Service User data protocol is preferred over transport control protocol because its used by DNS for name queries and because the information exchange between UDP and DNS is small in size for example the packet size sent through UDP is not greater than 512 bytes. Streaming multimedia Streaming multimedia its used by UDP because it compresses audio files in to small packets of data that makes it easy to transmit and continuously streaming and transmitting audio files whenever their audio data drops. This doesnt break or cause delay on audio broadcast. The streamed data is sent by the server application to the client application stores the stream data the then displays the data received in real time or playing the voice streamed files as soon as its buffered. Routing protocol On routing protocol, User data protocol is preferred because routing table updates are sent periodically and some of the data is lost a long the way and updates need to be resent so its up to date on network layer which is impossible with transport control protocol 2.3 Controversial use of UPD in multimedia applications The use of user data protocol for streaming multiple media application is controversial because user data protocol doesnt have congestion control which is much needed to prevent the network from going into a state in which less or no work can be done, for example if a users sends high bit rate video are sent without using congestion control, user will be unable to see the video messages because of the packet overflow at the router. 2.4 Adaptive congestion control scheme One scheme that would force the use of adaptive congestion control is real time communication scheme which has building reliability into applications that will force the use of congestion control, for example in mobile application where congestion control is built though the application run over user data protocol, it acknowledges and retransmit packets that get loss during transmission Applications that perform congestion control user the network more efficiently for example with bits rates being controlled, the network will not go into a state where it can not be used 2.5 Advantage of Adaptive congestion scheme Better performance of the network for example in the case of video when small bit are sent and controlled, the performance improves as the bandwidth will be enough to support bit rates It ensures that all packets sent reach destination 3. Exchange between Dhcp Server and Client Computers DHCP Server and Client Computers See Appendix (i) For clients to receive IP addresses from dhcp servers TCP/IP need to be con figured to get IP addressed automatically on the TCP/IP properties dialogue box. Dhcp client computers that are configured to obtain IP address automatically request and receive IP configuration upon booting the client computer. Dhcp clients get IP addresses and other configuration each time the client computers are started and join the network. Dhcp server assigns IP address to a client from a predefines scope for a given duration of time and if that duration expires the IP address is released to the scope and can be assigned to another client but if the duration is longer than the lease time, the client requests for and extension before the lease expires. 3.1 Router and Components A router is a device that connects one or more computer to create a network environment for example a modem. A router has the following major components Input port Is the point is direct connection for physical link and it is the point at which incoming packets enters the port. Input port provides functions such as performing the data link layer encapsulation and encapsulation, a route lookup and sending packets to output port via switching fabric as well as proving quality of service guarantees input port classify the in a predefined service level Output port Output ports stores packets that are forward via the switching fabric and transmits or schedule packets for service on an output link performing both the reverse data link and physical link functionality as done in input port Switching Fabric This connects input ports and output ports Routing processor Executes routing protocols, creates and forward routing tables which is used in packet forwarding and performs management functions within the router. 3.2 Internet Protocol version 4 Internet protocol version 4 is the protocol that is widely in use in most corporate networks and it uses network layer protocol and its used as internetwork layer protocol on the internet 3.3 Internet protocol version 6 Internet protocol version 6 is the update version of internet protocol version 4 with much more address space. Its mostly used on the internet bone in Asian countries. Protocol Structure of an IPV4 header See Appendix (i) Protocol Structure of an IPV6 header See Appendix (iii) Due to the depletion of internet protocol version four and lager routing tables, internet version 4 has been updated to version 6 that provides better security, more address space. This has made internet version 6 more advantageous in some ways as discussed below. Internet protocol version 6 address space 3.4 Advantages of internet version 6 Internet protocol version 6 has got more address space as compared to internet version 6 for example version 6 has got 128-bit address space which allows for flexible creation of multilevel, hierarchical and routing infrastructure which is not that possible with internet protocol version 4 Internet protocol version 6 has got in built security which is standard and mandate, its offered in all implementation and has no changes the application, for example security features such as authentication on packet signing , data encryption and end-to end DHCP, DNS and IPv6 mobility is provided for in security model. 4. Wired Equivalent Privacy WEP is the short term for Wired Equivalent Privacy for a security protocol used in wireless local area network that operates at a data link layer and has a security that can be turned of and on again as defined in 802.11b standards. This standard has been set by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering The main aim of Wireless Equivalent Privacy was to provide security via 802.1wireless network where data is sent from one end point to another. For example Key security features of WEP was meant to offer the following Confidentiality Wireless Equivalent Privacy is used to prevent data transmitted on the network from being eavesdropped by some whom the information is not meant to be communicated. Unauthorised access to wireless network Wireless Equivalent Privacy used to prevent unauthorised access to the network Data integrity, to prevent the alteration of data being transmitted 4.1 Advantages of Wired Equivalent Privacy WEP uses a 2.4 gigahertz radio frequency which provides clear signal for its lower than other frequencies and can travel through wall without affecting frequency. WEP is relatively cost effective for example the cost of a router and Wi-Fi card is normally below  £55 which makes it cost effective for both big corporations, and home users 4.2 Disadvantages of Wireless Equivalent Privacy Static encryption key which is used by all the devices on the network make it very easy for packets to be intercepted and crack what the key is making it very vulnerable to hackers. For example when a router is set up on the network, the encryption used by the router is then used by almost all the device on the network Weak keys made it easier for it to guessed and cracked when used at the access point Initialisation vector in WEP is also ways reused, for example if a user who connects with WEP to access wireless network uses the same key over and over changes, this key can easily be cracked WEP has its algorithms sent in plaintext which makes it a lot easier for key streams to be determined 4.3 Difference between WEP and WPA Wireless Equivalent Privacy standard 802.11 and Wireless Fidelity Protected Access are different in so many ways for example WEP uses 128bit with 24 integrity value, while WPA used 128 bite with a 48 bit integrity value. WPA has features such as Temporarily Key Integrity Protocol which dynamically changes the keys used for encryption while Key in WEP are static and is shared by all device on the network. The combined used of 48bit integrity values and TKIP, AES makes WPA more security strong as compared to WEP. Weak keys made it easier for it to guessed and cracked when used at the access point. Initialisation vector in WEP is also ways reused for example if a user who connects with WEP to access wireless network uses the same key over and over changes, this key can easily be cracked. WEP has its algorithms sent in plaintext which makes it a lot easier for key streams to be determined These weaknesses among others called for a better standard to be adopted which will provide wireless network with better security and this led to the improvement of 802.1 to WPA. 4.4 Wireless Fidelity Protected Access WPA stands for Wireless Fidelity Protected Access for local area network base on the specification of 802.11. This standard was designed to improve on the security weakness of Wired Equivalent Privacy. 4.5 Advantages of WPA WPA provides added authentication features to basic WEP which provides for stronger encryption mechanisms. The added features includes Advanced Encryption standards protocol as used in WPA2, Temporary key Integrity Protocol as used in WPA. When use in windows 2003 environment, WPA provides the strongest wireless security. WPA has back ward compatibility for older applications that use WEP this doesnt call for upgrade. The use of 802.1x Radius servers provides administrators with means of auditing and logging incidents. 4.6 Disadvantages of WPA The set up of the pre-shared key is difficult and it not beneficially to home users with less technical knowledge. It has more over head as compared to WPE. Its incompatible with pre 1998 windows operating systems and doesnt support older firmware. Its major fall is the denial of service attacks which can leave the whole network shutdown due to constant different keys that are generated and interpreted by the network as some kind of attack. 4.7 Comparing WPA and WEP features WPA has enhanced featured that is based on WEP standard. The features in WAP include temporarily key integrity protocol and 802.1 x. This features provides dynamic key integrity and mutual authentication to most wireless local area networks 48-bit initialisation vectors Like Wireless Equivalent Protocol, Temporal Key Integrity Protocol uses the RC4 stream cipher provided by RSA security for frame body decryption and CRC for each frame before transmission but the difference here is that WPA has added feature Temporal Key Integrity Protocol that uses a 48bit initialisation vectors that has reduced the re-use of initialisation vectors. This has brought about data confidentiality. While WEP encryption is based on 128bit with 24 integrity value, which means the keys are of smaller size and integrity value making it easy for hackers to crack the keys as the initialisation vector seeds to WEP algorithm coded, this feature has been enhanced by the 48 bit integrity vector in WPA. Data Encryption When data packets are sent, it encrypted separately with RC4 cipher stream, generated by b4 bit RC4 key, the key consist 24 bit initialisation vector Pre-Packet key Construction and Distribution WPA generates a new encryption key automatically for each client, for example WPA uses unique and different key for each 802.11 frames and avoid the use of same key as in WEP. This automatic key generation makes it impossible for WPA keys to be cracked by hackers While in WEP the same key is shares by all the devices on the network is static which means due it its unchanging nature, its a lot easy for the shared key to be modified Message Integrity codes The use of Michael prevents against attacks and forgeries, WPA uses a secrete 648bite authentication key that will be shared only between the source and destination where during the process of authentication tagging function takes place and message integrity code. For forgeries to be identified, the destination receiver inputs source into verification predicate and creates another tag code and it this both matches then the message is considerers authentic is created to detect bit flipping and changes to the source and destination. Unlike WEP that uses 4 byte integrity check value to the standard payload. The receiving client calculates the integrity check value and if the values do match then there is a chance that frames were not tempered with and in case data Counter mode/ CBC-MAC This is a data confidentiality protocol used for packet authentication and data encryption. For confidentiality for example CCMP uses the advanced encryption standards in counter mode and for encryption and data integrity CCMP deals with Cipher Blocking Chaining Message Authentication Code making this standard more secure as compared to WEP which has got no encryption mode EAP encapsulation over LAN, this is the key standard use n key exchange that is not used in WEP for example this protocol allows for a four way key handshake as well as a group key handshake while in WEP there is only a two way key handshake. The IEEE802.1x as used in WPA2 provided a sure means of authenticating and controlling user traffic to secure networks 5. A Disaster Recovery Plan Is the process of restoring access to the main business applications, data, hardware and software that is required to start the system operational, Disaster Recovery Plan provides information on how to handle information that may be lost or corrupted during the disaster as well as proving team leaders with procedures of restoring information and data. 5.1 Major steps in disaster recovery process Notification procedure This is the action taken by disaster team members as soon as emergency occurs. In the notification stage, systems can be restored functions on a limited basis. For example in a data centre when database team leader receives alert on his/her computer that a file within the database is corrupt, this alert can be sent to the team assessment team either automatically by the system or mailed to the assessment team to analyse the damage Analyse the extent of the damage The analysis of the damaged cause should be done as soon as possible to determine the level of damage to the applications for example if it a power outrage has occurred in the data centre, the analysis should be able to detailed the applications affected, origin of the incident, work areas that have been affected and if there is another source of power to run the database the this can be powered on for example in case there is UPS backup while further investigation in the outrage is carried Activation of the plan Depending on the damage cause by disaster and the out come of analysis, the disaster recovery team can make a decision to activate the plan. For example in the case of data centre if the entire database server is down, the team looks at the possible way that the system can be restored with a minimal time, planning for team communication procedures, then the respective team leaders will notify staff members about and start working on their respective tasks to restore the system as agreed by the team members. Execution stage Recovery process at this stage can be looked at under Sequence of Recover activities and Recovery procedures and depending on what has been defined in the data recovery plan for example in case of ordering database, this can be done manually while recovery process is done Sequence of Recovery activities Recover process should be carried out according the priority of each disaster and level of disaster damage from the results got from the analysis. For example if the database sever is recovered and this is the main critical business system, then this should be restored first before other servers and all the disaster recovery team should carried out the restoration process as in the disaster recovery plan,. If the business has to be transferred to another site then the critical files associated with the service has to be transferred depending on the plan. For example a plan to transport IT equipment and important data files. Recovery process This includes having access to the damaged IT equipment in case of the data centre this could database servers, corrupt files, informing users of the applications, getting backup if its not in house, restoring critical systems such operating systems, SQL database, testing the system before if goes operational and connecting the system on the network and informing uses of the application of the success of the restoration. Rebuilding process Ones the recovery process has been usefully, the disaster team recovery embarks on the process of transferring all the data recovered back to the original system, or may be totally system that can best support the functionality of data service being offered. The disaster recovery team will continue to monitor for any reoccurrence of incidents, make the necessary network and infrastructure connections, bring down the contingency system upon which the application was running and when the all system is stable the data centre staff can be able to use the original system after full restoration of data Update the disaster recovery plan If new procedures are find out during the process of recovery, it‘s updated on the recovery plan documentation which will be used again in case the same disaster occurs again 5.2Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery Plan The IT business continuity and disaster recovery plan for the IT department that I currently work in seeks to deal with the how best to handle emergency in the event of disasters and how best to minimise risk of damage, provide emergency services and recover to normalcy of service operations The Business Continuity Institute defines business continuity planning as â€Å"A holistic management process that identifies potential impacts that threaten an organisation and provides a framework for building resilience with the capability for an effective response that safeguards the interests of its key stakeholders, reputation, brand and value creating activities† 5.3 Aims of Business Continuity Planning Preventing a disaster At the initial planning stage, the critical areas of service operation of Information Technology is identified, for example within the Information Technology department where I work, servers for crucial systems, hot sites and training of the disasters team leaders are laid down. This initial planning stage is carried out with the aim of minimising the impact of disasters on Information technology resources and services; this also ensures that the department is able to recover as fast as possible from a disaster. Continuity The procedure of running a Information services using minimum resources during a disaster, this prevents the organisation from being put out of services both internally and externally. For example running applications for only crucial systems to continue operation while recovery is on the process Recovery The procedures that are required to restore all systems and resources are identified. This helps in bring all the resources and system to full operation, for example backing up data from off site centre. 5.4 Contingency Plan activation The activation of the organisations IT service continuity plan can be started at any time. The decision of activating the plan will be the sole responsibility of Estates and Security department with the assistant of officer in charge and contingency plan can not be started without the instruction being issued by Estates and security department with assistance from the Officer in charge. In case emergency occurs during business working hours, members of disaster recovery team will be gathered and depending on the level and mature or damage the Information technology team will be contacted If the emergency occurs out of business working hours, security is required to call the head of security or his/her deputy who will get in touch with the disaster recovery team with the help of the officer in charge and then the decision to initiate the Information communication technology business continuity plan If the team leaders are not available in the event of the emergency the deputy will take the responsibility and in the event where both the team leader and deputy are not available, next person on the list takes responsibility. 5.5 Emergency Management Team Team leader: Head of information Technology department who is responsible for over seeing all the information system services Deputy team leader: Systems Manager Responsible for all the systems applications such as the servers, back up and liaison between the off sites third party centres Team member: Database Administrator Responsible for; Internal databases and well as internal sites Ensure that a domain account has been set up for the SQL services. The admin backup and standard jobs from SourceSafe InstallationSQL Server 2000 Customise the jobs to ensure that server names and paths are correct Team member: Information Technology Security officer Responsible for the security of the internal sites and well as blocking unsafe sites Team member: Network Engineer Responsible for network connectivity and test our network devices from within our network Run test network script using DOS command Test access to the web services -Use government secure intranet network PC or dial-up PC belonging to web team in OCPD to check connection to all websites -Use nslookup to connect to wb-dns1 internal to the organisation and check that website names can be resolved Test email -An email should be sent to [emailprotected] and echo. These should respond by sending an email back 5.6 Disaster Recovery Plan Is the process of restoring access to the important system data, hardware and software that is required to start the system operational, Disaster Recovery Plan provides information on how to handle information that may be lost or corrupted during the disaster as well as proving team leaders with procedures of restoring information and data. 5.7 The main Objectives of the Information Technology Recovery Team The Recovery Teams main duties/ task are to: Prevent damages to Information Communication Installations Decide the requirements of senior management for other Departmental Recovery Teams and work accordingly to meet the requirements. Carry out tasks that lead to the provision of restoring all Information Communication service to normality as started by the Recovery Team within the disaster constraints or limits. 5.8 Disaster Recovery Team Team leader: Head of Estates and Security Responsible for the safe of the building as well as staff and members of the public Deputy team leader: Site Contractor Responsible for building and central service Team member: Head of security Responsible for staff and public safety 5.9Recovery Site The recovery site will be informed by the Information Technology Departmental recovery team leader and the assistant by Disaster recovery Team in case the team leader is absent. The site is located about 3 miles a way from the organisation, In case of serious incidents, the site can be contacted by information recovery mobile phone. 6. Assumptions With regard to the following case scenarios below, the disaster recovery team can take actions base on case scenario that is relative to the real disaster. Its the organisations policy that when incidents occur, staffs are evacuated from the building and entry to the site is not permitted unless staff members are informed by head of Estates and Security. 6.1 Case Scenarios Building Non-disruptive These case scenarios may include: Disaster in the staff car park not affecting the building Gas licking the building basement Suspicious package found in the public lockers Building is partly destroyed Scenarios in this case may include: Flood affecting the whole building Apart of the sever room that supports site B of the building is partly destroyed A part of fame room in site A where frame cabinets E8a and E8b are located is partly destroyed. IT store room is also partly affected. Building is completely destroyed Scenario in this case is: Server Room on site A of the building including cabinets room E1 and E2 are completely destroyed. 6.2 Building Non-disruptive 6.3 Actions In these case scenarios, all the information technology equipment are not destroyed. The disruption did call for evacuation of staff for healthy and safe issues and as soon as the build is cleared safe, staff members will be allowed in and operations will resume. 6.4 Building is partly destroyed In these case scenarios, some IT equipment are affected partly, it may escalate to a major for example the part destruction of server room in site A and the cabinet room where E8a and E8a may cause staff on this site to loss access to network resources. Here nothing can be done till staff members are not allowed to enter the building. Ones members are allowed in the building, all the equipment in the area affected can the